Any of various chemical substances added to foods to produce
specific desirable effects. Additives such as salt, spices, and sulfites have
been used since ancient times to preserve foods and make them more palatable.
With the increased processing of foods in the 20th century, there came a need for both the greater use of and new types of food additives.
Many modern products, such as low-calorie, snack, and ready-to-eat convenience foods, would not be possible without food additives.
With the increased processing of foods in the 20th century, there came a need for both the greater use of and new types of food additives.
Many modern products, such as low-calorie, snack, and ready-to-eat convenience foods, would not be possible without food additives.
Food additives and their metabolites are subjected to
rigorous toxicological analysis prior to their approval
for use in the industry. Feeding studies are carried out using animal species (e.g.,
rats, mice, dogs) in order to determine the possible acute, short-term and
long-term toxic effects of these chemicals. These studies monitor the effects
of the compounds on the behavior, growth, mortality, blood chemistry, organs,
reproduction, offspring, and tumour development in the test animals over a
90-day to two-year period. The lowest level of additive producing no
toxicological effects is termed the no-effect level
(NOEL). The NOEL is generally divided by 100 to determine a maximum acceptable
daily intake (ADI).
There are four general categories of food additives:
nutritional additives, processing agents, preservatives, and sensory agents.
These are not strict classifications, as many additives fall into more than one
category.
Nutritional additives are utilized for the purpose of
restoring nutrients lost or degraded during production, fortifying or enriching
certain foods in order to correct dietary deficiencies, or adding nutrients to
food substitutes. The fortification of foods began in 1924 when iodine was
added to table salt for the prevention of goiter. Vitamins are
commonly added to many foods in order to enrich their nutritional value. For
example, vitamins A and D are
added to dairy and cereal products, several of the B vitamins are added to
flour, cereals, baked goods, and pasta, and vitamin C is added to fruit
beverages, cereals, dairy products, and confectioneries. Other nutritional
additives include the essential fatty acid linoleic acid, minerals such as
calcium and iron, and dietary fibred.
Actress and social activist Jane Fonda became a
highly influential fitness role model with an extensive series of exercise
videos (in the LaLanne tradition) for women to practice toning, shaping, and
stretching in their homes. Fonda's step routines and Judi Missett's Jazzercise
coincided with an aerobics craze that was pioneered in the late 1960s by Kenneth Cooper, a
former U.S. Air Force flight surgeon who established a health and fitness
complex in Dallas, Texas, reminiscent of earlier centres by Kellogg and Macfadden.
His widespread teachings on the value of exercise in preventing heart disease
and promoting overall health led to a jogging boom that
put an estimated 35 million Americans on the road and enabled millions
worldwide to lead longer and more productive lives. (In honour of Cooper,
running in Brazil is often called “coopering.”) Traditional YMCA and “sweat”
gyms still existed, but the new generation of fitness buffs demanded
more—health and fitness centres of chrome, mirrors, and hardwood floors that
featured aerobics classes, free weights, computerized machines and routines,
pools, saunas, racquetball, tennis, nutritionists, certified personal trainers,
day care facilities, synchronized music, health bars, and fitness stores. Some
even conducted social activities and competitive events. Setting the trend was Gold's Gym, the most famous fitness franchise in the
world. It was opened in 1965 by Joe Gold, an original
member of Mae West's troupe, in Venice, California. It attracted Schwarzenegger
and other Weider stars and eventually spread to more than 500 facilities in
more than 25 countries. In 1977, after selling his business, Gold established
World Gym International in Santa Monica, which led to many more franchises. For more information visit our online store
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